History of antivirus software

History of antivirus software Antivirus Software History of Antivirus Software There are competing claims for the innovator of the first antivirus product. Possibly the first publicly documented removal of a computer virus in the wild was performed by Brent Fix in 1987. An antivirus program to counter the Polish MKS virus was released in 1987. Dr. Solomons Anti-Virus Toolkit, AIDSTEST and AntiVir were released by in 1988. Dr. Ahn Chul Soo (Charles Ahn, founder of AhnLab Inc) in South Korea also released the Anti-Virus software called V1 in June 10, 1988. By late 1990, nineteen separate antivirus products were available including Norton AntiVirus and McAfee VirusScan. Early contributors to work on computer viruses and countermeasures included Fred Cohen, Peter Tippett, and John McAfee. Before Internet connectivity was widespread, viruses were typically spread by infected floppy disks. Antivirus software came into use, but was updated relatively infrequently. During this time, virus checkers essentially had to check executable files and the boot sectors of floppy and hard disks. However, as internet usage became common, initially through the use of modems, viruses spread throughout the Internet. Powerful macros used in word processor applications, such as Microsoft Word, presented a further risk. Virus writers started using the macros to write viruses embedded within documents. This meant that computers could now also be at risk from infection by documents with hidden attached macros as programs. Later email programs, in particular Microsoft Outlook Express and Outlook, were vulnerable to viruses embedded in the email body itself. Now, a users computer could be infected by just opening or previewing a message. This meant that virus checkers had to check many more types of files. As always-on broadband connections became the norm and more and more viruses were released, it became essential to update virus checkers more and more frequently. Even then, a new zero-day virus could become widespread before antivirus companies released an update to protect against it. What is an Antivirus program? An antivirus program is used as a security measure and protection tool against computer viruses. The job of an antivirus program is to scan, detect and prevent viruses. Not all antivirus programs can perform these basic tasks, but this will be discussed later on in this report. Antivirus programs are an essential tool you must have installed on your computer or network. Antivirus programs offer real-time, on-access and on-demand protection for your computer. The way the programs works is based on the version of the antivirus program you have. Antivirus programs can be a standalone or can be included in a protection suite and are distributed in 32 and 64-bit versions on multiple operating systems such as Windows, Linux and Mac, allowing all different types of computers to be protected from malicious software. Why is Antivirus Software Necessary? Security is a major concern when it comes to the safety of your personal information. If someone were to access your information and use it, the consequence would be drastic. Information security is concerned with three main areas; Confidentiality peoples information should only be available to someone who has the right to view it. Availability information should only be accessible when someone needs it. Integrity information should only be modified by people who are authorized to edit it. These concepts apply to home Internet users just as much as they would to any corporate or government network. You probably wouldnt let a stranger look through your important documents. In the same way, you may want to keep the tasks you perform on your computer confidential, whether its tracking your investments or sending email messages to family and friends. Also, you should have some assurance that the information you enter into your computer remains intact and is available when you need it. Some security risks arise from the possibility of intentional misuse of your computer by intruders via the Internet. Others are risks that you would face even if you werent connected to the Internet (e.g. hard disk failures, theft, power outages). The bad news is that you probably cannot plan for every possible risk. The good news is that you can take some simple steps to reduce the chance that youll be affected by the most common threats and some of those steps help with both the intentional and accidental risks youre likely to face. Virus? What is a Virus? Before we go on and tell you how an antivirus program scans, detects and prevents viruses and malware, lets discuss what exactly a virus is. Like its genetic equivalent, a computer virus is a program that spreads unwanted and unexpected actions through the insides of your PC. Not all viruses are malicious, but many are written to damage particular types of files, applications or even operating systems. Some examples of viruses are; Trojan horse viruses, worms, spyware, adware, rootkits, and many other types of malware. Viruses have been around since the early 1970s. Even though they never had an internet connection back in the 70s viruses still infected computers by floppy disks. Yes, FLOPPY DISKS, the old 5 14 disks. The first recorded virus was in 1971 and it was called the Creeper Virus, which was written by Bob Thomas. What the Creeper virus did was it infected a remote computer by the ARPNET and copied itself displaying the message â€Å"IM THE CREEPER: CATCH ME IF YOU CAN!. Ironically the Reaper was created to delete the Creeper. The Reaper program was not like the anti-virus programs we know today, but in fact was a virus itself in that it was self replicating and spread through a network. How an Antivirus Program Works The first and most important task of an antivirus program is to protect, prevent, or block any malicious activity in your computer or home and office network in real-time. The real-time protection should trigger an alert or provide automatic action whenever a suspected or positively identified malware activity is detected. Most antivirus programs will only monitor some critical areas in your computer. When an antivirus program is installed, it will start monitoring the activity of the system by searching files that are being accessed, transferred, or stored to or from the hard disks and external/removable drives. Files that are being downloaded from the Internet are scanned. If a suspicious activity is detected, the antivirus program will automatically remove the file or stop the processes that are posing risk to your system, your contacts, or other computers or devices in on your network, unless you trust the file that you are receiving. Antivirus programs offer several types of detection methods to identify malware, but the most common detection methods is heuristic analysis and by using traditional virus detection (signature-based). 1. Characteristics of a program This is called heuristics scanning. Heuristic scanning engines work on the principle that viruses will usually use certain tricks or methods of infecting, and therefore if a program looks like it might be using those tricks, there is a possibility that the program is a virus. Sound simple? No, not really, its actually incredibly hard to write a foolproof 100% effective heuristics engine. (Engine, simply put, is just a word we use to describe the bit that drives the virus detector and compares files to the database of known infection agents) The more aggressive heuristic scanner may well detect large numbers of so called False Positives i.e. files that are really totally innocent but look like they might alter other files, the less aggressive ones might miss files that really are viruses. A method of heuristic analysis is for the anti-virus program to decompile the suspicious program, and then analyze the source code contained within. In reality heuris tics work quite well for some types of viruses, such as Macro Viruses, but not so well for other types. However, they are a reasonable attempt at providing protection against currently unknown viruses. The advantage to this method is the fact that there is no time period when the computer is not protected after specific viruses are released. The disadvantages include the fact that false positives may occur and some viruses may not be identified during the length of a scan. The first heuristic engines were introduced to detect DOS viruses in 1989. However, there are now heuristic engines for nearly all classes of viruses. 2. Footprint or Signature-based detection of virus program A virus signature is a particular pattern of bits or information contained in a virus that appears in no other file or program in the world, except for that virus. This method is the most common method used to identify viruses and false positives are very rare. It compares the virus footprint against a library of known footprints which match viruses. A footprint is a pattern in the data included in a file. Using this method, viruses must be identified as viruses, and then added to the library of footprints. The advantage to this method lies in the fact that false positives are very rare. The disadvantage to this method is the fact that there is a time period between when the virus is released to when the library of known footprints is updated. During this time period, the virus will not be recognized and could infect a computer. How do antivirus programs rate possible risk? Antivirus programs use a threat level index to determine what type of action to take. If the program is adware only, most antivirus programs will display a dialog box to inform the user why a program or related file of an adware program was detected. If the detected object is posing security and privacy risks, the threat level is medium, high, or severe. The threat level ratings by antivirus programs are not all the same. Some antivirus programs may not detect or even scan for tracking cookies. Some of these are installed when legitimate software downloaded from third-party websites is bundled with another installer from a company that is known to have a spyware or adware business. Quarantine and False Positives in Antivirus Programs Antivirus programs work also by quarantining suspect and malware files. This process is to prevent the offending objects from doing any damage in the system and to allow the end-user to restore back a quarantined object to its original location if it is found to be a false positive. A false positive detection is when a malware signature detected an uninfected file or process. In some cases, a false positive can cause a system to not to boot or run properly. If another program is affected by the false detection, the system will run normally, but not the program that the Antivirus have falsely identified and removed. Types of Antivirus Programs That Are Available On the following page there is a list, in alphabetical order, of some the companies who provide Antivirus programs and the platforms on which they are supported. Company Windows Apple Linux Mobile Free? AntiVir Yes No Yes No Yes AVG Yes No No No Yes Avira Yes No Yes Yes Yes BitDefender Yes No Yes Yes No ClamWin Yes No No No Yes ESET NOD32 Yes No Yes Yes No F-Prot Yes No Yes No No Kaspersky Yes Yes Yes Yes No McAfee Yes Yes Yes Yes No MSE Yes No No No Yes Network Associates Yes Yes Yes Yes No Panda Software Yes No Yes No No RAV Yes Yes Yes No No Sophos Yes Yes Yes No No Symantec (Norton) Yes Yes Yes Yes No Trend Micro Yes No No Yes No Vipre Yes No No No No Webroot Yes No No No No Antivirus Software Now that you have a basic understanding of how an antivirus program works and why you need one, here are some examples of three of the main antivirus programs available today. The main three that this report is going to discuss is Norton, Bitdefender, and Kaspersky. There are different types of antivirus programs available for each manufacturer and the following information is going to discuss these types of programs. Norton by Symantec Norton offers 3 antivirus programs; Norton Antivirus Norton Internet Security Norton 360 Here is a full list of what Norton by Symantec offers for their product line. (Symantec) Core Protection Blocks viruses, spyware, Trojan horses, worms, bots, and rootkits Defends against hackers with quiet two-way firewall Pulse updates every 5 15 minutes for up-to-the minute protection Advanced Protection Norton Bootable Recovery Tool repairs, restores and boots severely infected, unbootable PCs Leverages cloud-based online intelligence for real-time detection of threats Download Insight proactively warns of potential dangers in newly downloaded files and applications before you install or run them Guards against Web attacks that exploit software vulnerabilities Stops threats unrecognized by traditional antivirus techniques Filters unwanted email with professional-strength antispam Helps keep your kids safe online with parental controls (Microsoft Windows only) Networking Helps secure and monitor your home network Automatically secures your PC when connecting to public wireless networks Identity Protection Block hackers from accessing your computer Blocks phishing websites and authenticates trusted sites Secures, stores, and manages login and personal information Prevents hackers from eavesdropping and stealing information as you type Identifies unsafe Web sites in your search results Backup and Restore Automatically saves important files locally or to secured online storage Restores lost files and folders PC Tuning Optimizes the hard drive to free up disk space Optimizes PC performance with disk cleanup Provides clear insight into recent PC activities to help prevent slowdowns Optimizes application performance with one-click Support Free email, chat, or phone support Automatically finds and fixes common PC problems The following is a table of what exactly the three antivirus programs from Norton offer. Norton Internet Security Norton 360 Norton Antivirus Blocks viruses, spyware, Trojan horses, worms, bots, and rootkits Yes Yes Yes Defends against hackers with a quiet two-way firewall Yes Yes No Pulse updates every 5-15 minutes for up-to-the minute protection Yes Yes Yes Intelligence-driven technology for faster, fewer, shorter scans Yes Yes Yes Norton Bootable Recovery Tool repairs, restores and boots severely infected, unbootable PCs Yes Yes Yes Leverages cloud-based online intelligence for real-time detection of threats Yes Yes Yes Download Insight proactively warns of potential dangers in newly downloaded files and applications before you install or run them Yes Yes Yes Guards against Web attacks that exploit software vulnerabilities Yes Yes Yes Stops threats unrecognized by traditional antivirus techniques Yes Yes Yes Filters unwanted email with professional-strength antispam Yes No No Helps keep your kids safe online with parental controls (Microsoft Windows only) Yes Yes No Helps secure and monitor your home network Yes Yes No Automatically secures your PC when connecting to public wireless networks Yes Yes No Block hackers from accessing your computer Yes Yes No Blocks phishing websites and authenticates trusted sites Yes Yes No Secures, stores, and manages login and personal information Yes Yes No Prevents hackers from eavesdropping and stealing information as you type Yes Yes No Identifies unsafe Web sites in your search results Yes Yes No Automatically saves important files locally or to secured online storage No Yes No Restores lost files and folders No Yes No Optimizes the hard drive to free up disk space No Yes No Optimizes PC performance with disk cleanup No Yes No Provides clear insight into recent PC activities to help prevent slowdowns Yes Yes Yes Optimizes application performance with one-click Yes Yes Yes Free email, chat, or phone support Yes Yes Yes Automatically finds and fixes common PC problems Yes Yes Yes Bitdefender Bitdefenders product line for antivirus software is; Bitdefender Antivirus Bitdefender Internet Security Bitdefender Total Security Here is a list of what Bitdefender offers for there product line. (Bitdefender) Protection Antivirus Protects against viruses and other malware with industry-leading technology Multi-layered proactive protection against new and unknown threats Antispyware Blocks concealed programs that track your online activities Antiphishing Blocks web pages that attempt to steal your credit card data Antispam Stops unwanted e-mails from reaching your Inbox Firewall Automatically secures your Internet connection wherever you are Helps prevent outsiders form accessing your Wi-Fi network Performance Special Operating Modes Game Mode reduces system load postpones scans Laptop Mode prolongs battery life Tune-up Removes unnecessary files registry entries, for optimized performance Privacy IM Encryption Keeps your conversations private on Yahoo! And MSN Messenger File Vault Locks up confidential files in an encrypted vault File Shredder Ensures that no traces of deleted sensitive files remain on your PC Control Parental Control Blocks access to inappropriate websites and e-mail Limits kids access to the Internet, games, etc†¦ to specific times Home Network Manages the security of your entire network from a single location Data Backup Automatically backs up files and folders The following is a table of what exactly the three antivirus programs from Bitdefender offer. Bitdefender Antivirus Bitdefender Internet Security Bitdefender Total Security Antivirus Yes Yes Yes Antispyware Yes Yes Yes Antiphishing Yes Yes Yes Antispam No Yes Yes Firewall No Yes Yes Special Operating Modes Yes Yes Yes Tune-up No Yes Yes IM Encryption No Yes Yes File Vault No Yes Yes File Shredder No No Yes Parental Controls No Yes Yes Home Network Yes Yes Yes Data Backup No No Yes Kaspersky Kasperskys product line for antivirus software is; Kaspersky Antivirus Kaspersky Internet Security Here is a list of what Kaspersky offers for there product line. (Kaspersky) Protection from†¦ Viruses and spyware Infected websites Hacker attacks Spam and phishing Identity theft Features Comparison Virus and vulnerability scanner Proactive protection against programs based on their behaviour Restriction of access to private data by suspicious programs Application control Safe run mode (sandbox) to test questionable programs Network Protection Two-way personal firewall Secure wireless connections in public areas Email Protection Real-time scanning of email Anti-spam, Anti-phishing Web Protection Virtual keyboard to safely enter sensitive data Removal of Internet activity (history, cookies, etc) Parental Control Kaspersky Antivirus Kaspersky Internet Security Viruses and spyware Yes Yes Infected Websites Yes Yes Hacker attacks No Yes Spam and phishing No Yes Identity theft No Yes Virus and vulnerability scanner Yes Yes Proactive protection against programs based on their behavior Yes Yes Restriction of access to private data by suspicious programs No Yes Application control No Yes Safe run mode (sandbox) to test questionable programs No Yes Two-way personal firewall No Yes Secure wireless connections in public areas No Yes Real-time scanning of email Yes Yes Anti-spam, Anti-phishing No Yes Virtual keyboard to safely enter sensitive data Yes Yes Removal of Internet activity (history, cookies, etc) Yes Yes Parental Control Yes Yes As you can see from the previous lists, there is a difference in what the manufacturers of these programs offer. They all offer virus and spyware on their basic applications. If you want more features/protection you are going to have to spend the extra money to obtain those features/protection. All of these versions of Antivirus software offer real-time protection and do regular scans. Kind of a behind the scenes scan. Which is a good feature to have, knowing that most users just want it there to do its own thing, kind of like knowing it is protecting you but dont want to have to deal with it. Norton and Kaspersky offer protection for one year. At the end of that year you have to spend more money before you can obtain more updates from them. The good thing about Bitdefender is that when you purchase a subscription from them you get it for 2 years. S

The Spirituality And Architecture Theology Religion Essay

The Spirituality And Architecture Theology Religion Essay Spirituality  is an ultimate or an alleged immaterial  reality. The essence of spirituality is the search to know our true selves, to discover the real nature of consciousness. In other words, it is a constant discovery of the incredible, our real self, and a quest of our true being, why we are, who we are and where we belong. This has been a part of the eternal quest of man from times immemorial. These questions have been answered differently by many but are subject to ones own belief interpretation and perception. Sri Aurobindo in Indian Spirituality and Life (1919)says Man does not arrive immediately at the highest inner elevation and if it were demanded of him at once, he would never arrive there. At first he needs lower supports and stages of ascent, he asks for some line of thought, dogma, worship, image, sign, and symbols, some indulgence and permission of mixed half natural motive on which he can stand while he builds up in him the temple of spirit.(Sri Aurobindo, Indian Spirituality and Life, 1919) Mans quest of truth, reality and peace has been unending. Overawed with the infinite nature, whatever he could not comprehend he attributed that to the glory of nature. Mans intellect cannot accept anything that is unknown, unseen and has no fixed shape or form. Thus to satisfy his intellectual curiosity man gave physical form to the divine being. Spirituality is our attempt to become aware of our spirit. Spiritual architecture refers to any building system that facilitates this awareness. It is, an act of highlighting or bringing forth the self, not by rejecting matter but by manifesting it in matter, at various levels and in multiple forms. E.V. Walter in Placeways, defines spiritual space as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a specific environment of phenomena that are expected to support the imagination, nourish spiritual experience, and convey spiritual truth (Walter,E.V., Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment, 75). Spiritual spaces can be found in nature or they can be a constructed space. A spiritual space found in nature is a place designated by individuals or groups as such a place. It is a distinct space, a place whose character sets it apart from its surroundings. They are distinct from typical or commonly found places. The designation of a place as spiritual comes from the human need to establish a connection with inner truth. A place that is spiritual to one person or group of people may not be spiritual to others. Architecture of a space can invoke all the senses, help one concentrate ones positive energies to calm a disturbed mind and take a peaceful stable mind beyond the physical. It is an inevitable part of life. It attempts to reflect mans source and the reason of being in several varied ways. Architecture is more than mere physical shelter or symbolic artefacts. They are catalyst towards our dwelling, between our being and the world. Architecture, together with the other arts, has, since time immemorial, been one of the most powerful means to pursue and realize this quest and give it physical-symbolic expression: how to create an identity and a place for our being from within the vast, shapeless and infinite extent of time and space; how to affirm our presences and gain a foothold, in the universe. (Gunter Dittmar, Upon the Earth, Beneath the Sky: The Architecture of Being, Dwelling Building, 2001) Successful architectural expression is one, which is able to do both; provide an enriching experience and an unforgettable image. It becomes more important while expressing spirituality in material to provide for an experience of, both the form and the formless, one perceptible by the senses and other beyond senses. Since sacred spaces are separate from everyday places in a designated precinct, value is placed on the journey and arriving at the sacred place. The path and the ritual journey are part of the sacred experience. It is a universal goal of mankind to seek or to create spiritual spaces. What is a spiritual space, and what are the qualities which describe that space? What defines spirituality and the space it makes and how does this form relate to us today? RESEARCH QUESTION What are the attributes of spiritual spaces? 1.2 NEED FOR JUSTIFICATION The current crisis of environmental degradation is also a crisis of places. People are systematically building meaningless places. We must develop a way of understanding the built environment and the natural landscape. True renewal, will require a change in the way we structure experience for understanding both the natural land and the constructed world. Since, the spiritual dimension and moral obligation have been discarded by the modern. Materialism divorced from ethics has corrupted the society. Therefore, more and more people are turning to Spirituality, Yoga and Meditation. Religious people are searching for the lost grid of spirituality in religion. Thus, there is a growing need of buildings to cater this need of people. There are spatial qualities and architectural elements based on experiential background and emotional attachments. To identify and define these connections, one has to go beyond the basic observation of signs and symbols, and analyse the spatial qualities and architectural elements which stimulate senses. 1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY A brief study of design tools, which are capable of making the experience soul stirring. These include form, space, volume, geometry, scale and proportions, light and colour. Historical and symbolic aspects of spiritual spaces have already been discussed. (Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. 2; Sir Banister Fletchers a History of Architecture, Sir Banister Fletcher,  Dan Cruickshank; Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Period), Percy Brown) Thus this study will be focused towards the very fundamental architectural criterion and spatial impression on individuals mind. The study does not discuss in detail many issues, like evolution, construction, etc. But focuses on the internal design aspects, concerning the designing of a spiritual space, which are known and acknowledged. Study should avoid commenting on the beliefs and rituals of various religions, but should debate towards the evolution and change of spatial qualities and form. 1.4 LIMITATION FOR THE RESEARCH Study of sacred spaces of all faiths is not possible within the limited time frame. A study of the built environment shall be undertaken which shall include only the spiritual aspect, the qualitative parameters and not the technical evaluation of the built form. Considering the time frame provided for the completion of the study, primary case studies taken are done from Delhi only. It would have been desirable to study how sacred can be woven into the everyday as well. 1.5 METHODOLOGY The study is intended to be broken into subheads that will make it easier to understand the topic that talks about spiritual dimensions in sacred spaces and architectural qualities influencing human behaviour. STAGE 1 IDENTIFYING NEED FOR THE STUDY Trying to find the objectives of study. Setting up the scope and limitations. STAGE 2 LITERATURE SURVEY Through the survey of all possible data related to the topic or on architecture and human behaviour. This stage of the research includes collecting data that is directly or indirectly related to spiritual aspect of architectural spaces. This has been done through the printed form or from the internet, articles and discussions of peoples relating to the study. Literature survey aims at sorting out case studies both inside and outside India and also at getting an review of what are the recent developments and events that are taking place in the field of spiritual architecture. STAGE 3 LITERATURE SURVEY 2 A study has been undertaken to understand the mental conditions of a man in different spaces and its relation with the creator. Through this the topic got defined and the question got framed. STAGE 4 INTERRELATING DIFFERENT SACRED STRUCTURES As our concern is on human being, the structures affecting human mind around the world should have similarities. Search for the overlapping of spatial qualities in sacred structures around the world. STAGE 5 FRAME WORK To make a framework of different issues and principles studied which can be applied on case studies. List of issues formulate questionnaire for the case studies and interviews. List of issues: Open and closed space Portal or entrance Path and surrounding landscape Destination point Form, geometry, proportion and scale Articulation and symbolism Light, colour and sound Touch, smell and taste STAGE 6 Fig 1.1 ISKCON Temple, New Delhi Fig 1.2 Cathedral Church of Redemption, New Delhi Fig 1.3 Jama Masjid, New DelhiCASE STUDIES ISKCON TEMPLE, NEW DELHI CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF REDEMPTION, NEW DELHI JAMA MASJID,NEW DELHI Case studies are selected to understand the sacredness and the spiritual consciousness through the built, the purpose behind it. Case studies will throw some light on the spatial qualities of spiritual spaces. Suitable case studies will be undertaken to examine the need of the topic and its negligence in present day scenario. STAGE 7 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY All the information collected so far was then analysed thoroughly. An analysis of experiencing the sacred buildings to out the design tools that an architect can employ to create the desired spiritual experience. STAGE 8 DESIGN IDEA FORMULATION After assimilation of all matter and analysis of material collected, conclusions are derived, as to, how an architect can use design tools to stimulate all the senses and make the experience of a spiritual space spiritual. CHAPTER 2: SPIRITUAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2.1 SPATIAL QUALITIES AND HUMAN MIND The sacred is never intentionally chosen, but in some way or the other revels itself. -Eliade (1963) The meaning of structured space, a meaning which we believe lies in its dynamic relationship to its human personality and to our mental health. Fig 2.1 The self- Hindu thought (Source: Prof. H.D. Chayya)The environment in which humans operate has an important influence on their wellbeing and performance. Our structured environment is so important and, influence direct or indirect, on the shaping of personality and the choice as well as the attainment of goals. Emotional design and tangible interaction are compelling forms of enhancing user engagement. The combination of these modes of interaction can create a new dimension of human experience when physical movement in space or the manipulation of objects triggers emotions within an individual. By seamlessly integrating expressive tangible interaction techniques with ambient intelligence, that is, by creating environments that are sensitive and responsive to human gestures, meaningful experiences can be constructed. Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter and Krik Bach found in their detailed studies of one urban situation, that physical spaces play a very large part in the formation of community relationships à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and even minor architectural feature, such as the position of staircase and mailboxes, had important effects on the social life of people. The architect who builds a house or who designs a site plan, who decides which direction the houses will face and how close together they will be, also is, to a great extent, deciding the pattern of social life among the people who will live in those houses.(Strengthening Weak Ties: Social Networks and Student Housing, Thesis, B. Design in Architecture, University of Florida, 2011) Geoffrey Scotts book The Architecture of Humanism, 1914, he said, The architect models in space as a sculptor in clay. He designs the space as a work of art; that is, he attempts through his means to excite a certain mood in those who enter it. The view has been elaborated by others, among them Bruno Zevi, Architecture as Space, 1957: the facade and walls of house. Church, or palace, no matter how beautiful they may be, is only the container, the boxà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦; the content is the internal space. As Geoffrey Scott suggests, Space itself is not obvious, cannot be visually perceived; one sees only objects in space; or the structural members that encloses the space. Space itself can only be sensed- that is, felt; its quality is apprehended by means of the senses, but its effect is upon the emotions, and cannot readily be rationalized, measured or depicted. One can only gauge and describe accurately enough the adequacy or structural soundness, its provision for warmth, ventilation, sanitation, light, and other physical factors. One can criticize its components in terms of proportion, texture, colour and other aesthetic considerations. Fig. 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 (Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Fig. 2.5 Non-sign II-art installation by  Annie Hans  and  Daniel Mihalyo But beyond all of these, there is an overall effect exerted upon ones consciousness by architectural space which defies precise definition.(Scott, Geoffrey, The Architecture of Humanism, 1914) Architecture truly conceived, is nothing less than the conscious and careful determination of our whole structured environment and leaves an impression on individuals mind, which can be controlled. Like a stage setting that controls the movements of actors and defines where and under what circumstances they can meet, our habitat channels our movements and influence our contacts. If we think of buildings at all, it is usually when we are jolted by some outrage, such as a stalled elevator or a leaky roof, long columned corridor, a double height space. (Walter, E.V., 1988, Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment) Table 2.1 The concept of the spirit of a space (Source: Author)Some of the architectural integrant which affect human psychology are: Five senses Hearing Touch Sight Taste Smell The basic elements Space Air Fire Water Earth Instruments of perception (to acquire inward) Ear Skin Eyes Tongue Nose Work organs (to act outwards) Speech communication (exit) Hands work (finger) Feet mobility Anus discard Genitals procreate Control centre force Mind (flow of thoughts and emotions) Intellect (power of discrimination) The presiding force (PRANA or the life force) The cosmos consciousness or the supreme energy Architecture Silence Climate Light Plumbing Landscape transformation Acoustics Weather Colour Cooling Related technological fields Vibrations Texture surfaces Texture forms Repose odour Emotional Design Emotion is a fundamental aspect of what makes us human; it shapes our cognition, perception, memory, and learning and it colours our past, present, and future experiences. Emotional value is important in design for enhancing user experience as Donald Norman explains: Our attachment is really not to the thing, it is to the relationship, to the meanings and feelings the thing represents. Emotional design then, provides an aesthetic interaction that engages users on an emotional, meaningful, and psychological level. Whereas affective computing focuses on the system recognizing and adjusting to what it believes the user is feeling, emotional design focuses on the emotional experience. Physical and Tangible Interfaces Human movement is often spurred by intention and motivation within people. Tangible user interfaces allow users to interact with virtual information by sensing and manipulating physical environments through objects, surfaces, and spaces. Relation of architecture and human psychology is far interrelated. Appropriate use of various architectural components has the capacity of enlightening the atmosphere whereas inappropriate use does the opposite. The building forms, the functions incorporated in it, colours, negative and positive spaces in and around it may be the few points but architecture is directly attached with human psychology from conscious to subconscious level. 2.2 PLACEBO EFFECT: SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION For decades, scientists have tried to understand the mysterious power of what is called the placebo effect. Placebo studies prove how powerfully we are influenced not just emotionally but physiologically by how we perceive the world around us. Articulation and architectural conditions in homes can have powerful and long-lasting psychological impact. The placebo effect offers a clue that points to how we might create curative environments. The placebo effect as a therapy, the fact that believers in a wide variety of ancient faith systems also claim similar effects, as have modern scientists who study mind/body medicine. Fig 2.6 Illustration of the interrelationship of stress, belief and how they may impact on the placebo effect and the relaxation response. (Source: http://www.sciencedirect.com)In other words, it impacts an ancient part of our brain which we share with many other species. Endogenous opioids, which are naturally produced by the brain in small amounts and play a key role in the relief of pain and anxiety, have been implicated in placebo analgesia. CHAPTER 3: SACRED SPACE AND SPIRITUALITY 3.1 OPEN SPACES: AS SACRED SPACES Does spirituality needs sacred spaces and vice versa? Does spirituality really is incomplete without architecture? Is it not the quality of the inner life, open to a virtual dimension that transcends the sensible, that matters? Fig 3.1 Lodhi Garden, New Delhi (Source: Author)Open space has two different meanings that work together to create sacred places that are inclusive and aware of many elements that may be exclusive to any potential user of the space. An open space is open to the public, meaning anyone of any race, faith, culture, or belief is able to enter the space. The space is for the whole community of different people rather than just one particular group. Or, an open space is one that feels welcoming and non-threatening to those that spend time in it; it feels like home for the soul. The design of the space and the placement of features such as portals, paths, universal symbols that have meaning across all religions, nations and ethnic groups, lend to the openness of the space by inviting those outside of the space to enter it. The combination of a space being open on both a physical and spiritual level is what makes up Open Spaces, Sacred Places. 3.2 ATTRIBUTES OF A SPIRITUAL SPACE Architecture is the first pioneer on the highway toward the adequate realization of inner self. For this means it levels space for self-realization, informs his external environment, and builds a fit place for the aggregation of those assembled having similar faith, as a defence against the threatening of tempest, against rain, and savage animals. Besides the variety of buildings and design approaches in the effort to create a space where man can feel spirituality, there can be found some common design tools that help to create the soul stirring experience. The following discuss some of these parameters. The portal or threshold is the entryway into the sacred space, which helps to separate the space from the greater surrounding space and invites you to step inside. A portal can be created with a hardscape such as a gate or a portico, or with simple planting. Fig 3.2 Portal to Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com) Fig 3.4 Open space, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com) Fig 3.3 Pathway in a Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)The path invites exploration and discovery along the route. It meanders through spaces, fuels the imagination and entices one to see where it may lead. The destination point is an end point within a space that inexplicably draws visitors. It may be a resting place, such as a bench, or a beautiful natural feature, such as a gurgling fountain or rain curtain. It is a point within the sacred space where those who visit always end up. Sacred spaces may have more than one destination point. Space and Volume Fig. 3.5 Space defining elements, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Space, whether of the individual or the universal, possesses a unique quality of experiencing. It is hyper sensitive, besides being super potential. Sense of surround defines the space as separate and apart from the overall outdoor environment. Visitors who enter the space feel as though they are entering into a room. There are natural or man-made boundaries (or a combination of both) that delineate the space within the greater environment. These boundaries provide a subtle feeling of shelter, enabling people to feel safe and enjoy their time spent in the space. (Nicolas, W. Robert Leo A Daly, 2004, building Type Basics for Places of Worship) By generating a continuous flow of spaces, each act movement becomes an experience. Each component of architecture becomes important and provides for this linkage. It can be by repetition of elements, alteration in scale and proportion, staggering, light, texture, and colour and also by using perspective as a device to accentuate the drama. (Robinson,J., 1979, Religious Buildings) Fig. 3.6 Form and Space, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Form and Geometry Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and space Architectural Form required to fulfil its functional requirements for that is the reason for its being both physical and spiritual. (Saarinen, E., op.cit. pg 14)Every form conveys a meaning. It is important to understand how form can transmit a spiritual meaning. Certain shapes and forms are conventional associated with certain meanings. Scale and Proportion Fig. 3.7 Vastupurusa (Source: Charles Correa, Vistara; Architecture of India) Fig. 3.8 Vitruvius Man (Source: Leonardo Da vinci.stanford.edu)Scale refers to the size of something compared to reference standard or size of something else. Deciding the scale of a sacred space is a common design concern. Some blend into the fabric of the neighbouring community and landscape; others stands out as landmarks, easily recognized for their special purpose. Generally the sacred spaces take monumental scale to create an atmosphere of awe, mystery and magnificence. The scale of the interior spaces, the size and weight of doors, and the exposed structural columns and beams all serve to denote the special quality of the sacred space. Fig. 3.9 LeCorbusier modular Man (Source: Corbusier, The modulor)Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole. While the designer usually has a range of choices when determining the proportions of things, some are given to us by the nature and the man himself. Human body proportions are used not merely as numbers with an inherent harmony, but as a system of measurements that could govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes. It can lend itself to an infinity of combination; it ensures unity with diversity; the miracle of numbers. Proportional buildings and scale link spiritual architecture to the mathematical structure of the cosmos. The building should relate well not only to the human scale but also the psyche. Light and Colour Fig. 3.12 Khajuraho Temple (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik) Fig. 3.11 Prayer at Church (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Light is regarded to be the most important component in definition of space or the manifestation of form in an architectural space; it not only defines the space but also gives meaning to it. In this study one looks at how light can create a place of worship; how to make a quiet, enclosed, isolated space, space full of activities, filled with vitality. Fig. 3.10 Khirki Masjid (Source: Jegmet Wangchuk) Colour is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. We respond to bright colours, for instance red, with the emotional part of our brain. First, our muscles get tense, and then we lean towards the colour. Our respiration and heart rate goes up and the blood pressure starts rising. The opposite reactions occur when we see light colours such as blue. Our muscles relax, the heart and respiration rate drops and the blood pressure lowers. It also affects the visual weight of a form. Gradation of colour exist; from pale to brilliant; from cold to warm. Thus colour expression is also full of meaning. Texture is an important asset of colour. It is the visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by shape and arrangement, and the proportions of the parts. Texture also determines to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident light. It gives an expression to the surface, thereby contributing to the overall impression. Color Colors Characteristics Colors Actions Red Stimulating, exciting, provocative, dynamic Increased enthusiasm, interest, and energy Pink Happy, sweet, spirited, romantic, youthful Calm and relaxing feelings Brown Wholesome, rich, durable, rustic, sheltering A connection with the natural earth and the stability this brings Orange Friendly, vital, tangy, energizing, inviting Increases creativity and gives relief from things becoming too serious Blue Dependable, cool, serene, constant, quiet Broadens your perspective in learning new information Green Refreshing, healing, fresh, soothing, nature Gives freedom to pursue new ideas Purple Sensual, elegant, mysterious, regal, spiritual Calms over activity or energizes from depression Black Strong, classic, elegant, powerful, mysterious Opens the door to mystery and prepares for the unknown Yellow Warming, sunny, cheerful, luminous, enlightening Gives clarity for decision making and sharper memory and concentration skills white Pure, bright, innocent, lightweight, pristine Starts a fresh beginning Fig. 3.13 Colours in Culture (Source: www.informationisbeautiful.net) Table. 3.1 Concept of Colours (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Symbolism Symbolism We can identify iconography depicted in architecture of these buildings as the signs and symbols and the inspirations taken directly from some other structure or theories and thoughts spread across the world. A symbol is the juxtaposition that is, a co-optation of visible forms brought forth to demonstrate some invisible matter. One needs to identify with ones religion that is where symbols play an important role.( JosePereira, 2004, The Sacred Architecture of Islam) Table. 3.2 Iconography in major religions (Source: JosePereira, The Sacred Architecture of Islam, 2004)Sacred symbolism is considered to be present in every major religious building, around the world. Iconography of sacred geography in three major religions of the world: TEMPLE MOSQUE CHURCH MOUNTAIN Shikhara Minaret Lofty towers STONE Idol One that in Kabba Altar TREE Present in courtyard Cross WATER Sarovar Ritual ablutions in courtyard Place of Baptism But is it signs and symbolism only which draw an impact on our behaviour. When we get in to some space, is the aesthetical and visual perception only gets conceived in our mind. Fig. 3.15 Temple Bells (Source: Author) Fig. 3.14 Prayer at church (Source: http://www.mlive.com) Fig. 3.16 Reciting Quran in Mardrsa (Source: http://www.mlive.com)SOUND The reverberant sound quality created by the proportions and the materials of sacred spaces set them apart from the ordinary. Sacred music, singing, chanting, the ringing of temple and church bells and intoning of prayers characterize specific rituals. The change in sound quality from the cacophony of the street to the harmony resonant silence signifies entry into a sacred space. TOUCH The experience of touch identifies a sacred space; the weight of the door handle, the textures of materials on walls and seating, and the hardness of stone underfoot. A change in temperature, such as the transition from the blazing heat of a busy city street into the cool and solitude of an interior can also denote a sacred space. Most of the textures are touched by vision, iconography, formed an integral part of a temple and a church architecture to convey the complete narrative. Though the following two are not translated into architectural terms, but they form an indispensable part of a complete spiritual experience. SMELL Fig. 3.20 Garlands for devotees (Source: Author) Fig. 3.18 IItr, scented oil Fig. 3.19 Votive Candles (Source: Author) Fig. 3.17 Agarbatti (Source: http://www.mlive.com)Incense is used extensively in the Roman Catholic and Buddhist traditions as a symbol of prayers going up to the deity. The smell of agarbatti and the flowers offered to deity are indispensable parts of the rituals for Hindu as well as many other faiths. The incense sticks are used even in meditation centers as the intoxicating smell stimulates your senses to the positive and calms you down. TASTE Fig. 3.23 Christmas cake (Source: www.google.com) Fig. 3.22 Korma (Source: Author) Fig. 3.21 Laddo (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)Though this sensory experience is missing in many of the architecture, it still is an integral part of many religious experiences. All the Hindu temples have Prasad and Chanramrit (sweet water) as an indispensable part of the worshipping ritual. Some believe that this custom of sharing sweets is a memorial of the sweetness of the deities. Christians offer holy water in a similar manner. The prasad is obligatory in the Gurudwara too. 3.3 SPIRITUAL DIMENSION IN EXISTING BUILDING TYPOLOGY 3.3.1 THE HINDU TEMPLE The Hindu temple is essentially the House Of God. It is not a place for congregational worship. Though congregation for religious ceremonies do take place, but the worshippers communication with the divine is his own personal experience. The worshipper goes individually to the house of God and invokes his blessings. Stella Kramisch, in her book, The Hindu Temple says, the intellect of the age, absorbed largely in divine contemplation, is reflected in the temple idol

Pollution on the Family Farm Threatens the Environment :: Water Polluting Essays Papers

Pollution on the Family Farm When you think of pollution you think of industrial pollution running down a river, or smoke coming out of a factory’s smokestack rising up into the environment. These are all concerns in the world today; however, in this paper will talk about pollution that hits a little closer to home. This paper will discuss about pollution on family run farms in rural America. These pollutions range from private well water contamination to fecal pollution run-off into streams by dairy and beef farms. One of the major concerns in today’s Agricultural system is the use of water, and the short supply of water. A more immediate problem is nitrate contamination in millions of private well around the country. As one can imagine most of these wells are found on private farms around the United States. Nationally 1.4 million households drink water from private wells with nitrate levels that exceed the federal drinking water standard of 10 parts per million (ppm)( Ready, R., & Henken, K.). There is an estimated damage to a household from drinking water from a nitrate contaminated well to be $635 per year, with a total damage of almost $900 million per year to private well owners (Ready, R., & Henken, K.). Over 25% of the water used by households in the United States comes from groundwater. One of the major sources of nitrates in groundwater is caused by agricultural activities, including chemicals applied to crops and waste from livestock production (Ready, R., & Henken, K.). The main problem with livestock waste and chemicals is their tendency to diffuse in water, which means they cannot be easily contained or pinpointed to the source. According to a study by the Great Plains Agricultural Council, agricultural land is the largest contributor of non-point source pollution to natural water resources in the High Plains region and throughout the United States. In this survey they found that Nitrate-N was the most commonly detected agricultural chemical in surface and groundwater (Elrashidi, M., Mays, M., Peaslee, S., & Hooper, D.) Another topic that ties into pollution and threatens water resources is agricultural subsidies provided by the government. A report from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development says that â€Å"Agricultural subsidies threaten land and water resources and create artificial incentives to expand farm production† (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). Pollution on the Family Farm Threatens the Environment :: Water Polluting Essays Papers Pollution on the Family Farm When you think of pollution you think of industrial pollution running down a river, or smoke coming out of a factory’s smokestack rising up into the environment. These are all concerns in the world today; however, in this paper will talk about pollution that hits a little closer to home. This paper will discuss about pollution on family run farms in rural America. These pollutions range from private well water contamination to fecal pollution run-off into streams by dairy and beef farms. One of the major concerns in today’s Agricultural system is the use of water, and the short supply of water. A more immediate problem is nitrate contamination in millions of private well around the country. As one can imagine most of these wells are found on private farms around the United States. Nationally 1.4 million households drink water from private wells with nitrate levels that exceed the federal drinking water standard of 10 parts per million (ppm)( Ready, R., & Henken, K.). There is an estimated damage to a household from drinking water from a nitrate contaminated well to be $635 per year, with a total damage of almost $900 million per year to private well owners (Ready, R., & Henken, K.). Over 25% of the water used by households in the United States comes from groundwater. One of the major sources of nitrates in groundwater is caused by agricultural activities, including chemicals applied to crops and waste from livestock production (Ready, R., & Henken, K.). The main problem with livestock waste and chemicals is their tendency to diffuse in water, which means they cannot be easily contained or pinpointed to the source. According to a study by the Great Plains Agricultural Council, agricultural land is the largest contributor of non-point source pollution to natural water resources in the High Plains region and throughout the United States. In this survey they found that Nitrate-N was the most commonly detected agricultural chemical in surface and groundwater (Elrashidi, M., Mays, M., Peaslee, S., & Hooper, D.) Another topic that ties into pollution and threatens water resources is agricultural subsidies provided by the government. A report from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development says that â€Å"Agricultural subsidies threaten land and water resources and create artificial incentives to expand farm production† (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development).

Essay --

Brady Fletcher Mrs. Stone Advanced English III 12. Dec. 2013 Robert E. Lee America has had many people that have made a positive difference to this nation by showing perseverance and putting others first for the greater good for the cause. People from low levels of society and from high levels of society have contributed to change this to become great. Robert E. Lee and his family did not enjoy fantastic wealth (â€Å"American Experience†). Robert E. Lee had an impact on this nation from the military standpoint. He had many difficult choices and decisions to make, like to stay with Virginia or to lead the Union Army. Lee served his country with everything he had. He fought on the battlefield, and commanded troops to victories and defeats. Lee never complained about the situation he was in or gave up when the going got tough. How did Robert E. Lee’s successful military career affect his life and how is he considered a prominent figure in American history? Lee didn’t grow up in a real wealthy family although his family held a position in Virginia’s ruling elite. His father Henry Lee, also known as â€Å"Light-Horse Harry,† was a cavalry leader during the Revolutionary war. Like his father, Robert E. Lee also took the military route when he enrolled in the Military Academy at West Point where he rapidly grew in ranks and graduated second in his class of 1829 (â€Å"American Experience†). After graduating from West Point Lee took the job as an officer in the corps of Engineers, where he supervised and inspected the nation’s coastal defenses. Lee did this for 17 years without having any experience on the field of war. All of this would change very soon for Lee when he would finally set foot on the battle field in Mexico in 1846. Lee r... ...uch to defeat. Lee has had many ups and downs during military career. Because of this, people look to Robert E. Lee as a very good man. He showed loyalty, dedication, and relentless pursue for victory. He truly is a person that you can model your life after and learn some valuable life lessons from him. His courageous and brave lifestyle should be recognized as a prominent figure in United States history. Lee taught people what it meant to be a true American dedicated to make this nation be as good as it can be. He also faced many tough decisions in war whether it was to attack, retreat, or to surrender. Although people make tough decision every day of their life, they don’t compare to the decisions that Lee had to make. Lee’s decisions lead to the death of soldiers in a winning or losing effort. Also his decisions made an impact on the United States. Essay -- Brady Fletcher Mrs. Stone Advanced English III 12. Dec. 2013 Robert E. Lee America has had many people that have made a positive difference to this nation by showing perseverance and putting others first for the greater good for the cause. People from low levels of society and from high levels of society have contributed to change this to become great. Robert E. Lee and his family did not enjoy fantastic wealth (â€Å"American Experience†). Robert E. Lee had an impact on this nation from the military standpoint. He had many difficult choices and decisions to make, like to stay with Virginia or to lead the Union Army. Lee served his country with everything he had. He fought on the battlefield, and commanded troops to victories and defeats. Lee never complained about the situation he was in or gave up when the going got tough. How did Robert E. Lee’s successful military career affect his life and how is he considered a prominent figure in American history? Lee didn’t grow up in a real wealthy family although his family held a position in Virginia’s ruling elite. His father Henry Lee, also known as â€Å"Light-Horse Harry,† was a cavalry leader during the Revolutionary war. Like his father, Robert E. Lee also took the military route when he enrolled in the Military Academy at West Point where he rapidly grew in ranks and graduated second in his class of 1829 (â€Å"American Experience†). After graduating from West Point Lee took the job as an officer in the corps of Engineers, where he supervised and inspected the nation’s coastal defenses. Lee did this for 17 years without having any experience on the field of war. All of this would change very soon for Lee when he would finally set foot on the battle field in Mexico in 1846. Lee r... ...uch to defeat. Lee has had many ups and downs during military career. Because of this, people look to Robert E. Lee as a very good man. He showed loyalty, dedication, and relentless pursue for victory. He truly is a person that you can model your life after and learn some valuable life lessons from him. His courageous and brave lifestyle should be recognized as a prominent figure in United States history. Lee taught people what it meant to be a true American dedicated to make this nation be as good as it can be. He also faced many tough decisions in war whether it was to attack, retreat, or to surrender. Although people make tough decision every day of their life, they don’t compare to the decisions that Lee had to make. Lee’s decisions lead to the death of soldiers in a winning or losing effort. Also his decisions made an impact on the United States.

Poes Theory and Practice Reflected in The Cask of Amontillado Essay

Poe's Theory and Practice Reflected in The Cask of Amontillado Edgar Allan Poe, author of "brilliant reviews, poems, and stories," was born in 1809, and sadly died, a young man, in 1849 (665). To truly understand Poe, one must note the time period in which he wrote. It was an age of Literary Realism and Dark Romanticism, which was Poe's arena. The concept of "New Literary Criticism" was not yet mainstream. However, Poe was a critic as well as an acclaimed author. By observing the talents that Poe admired in the writings of others, one may better understand the inner workings of Poe's infamous short stories. In 1854, Poe wrote a review of the works of Nathaniel Hawthorne entitled "The Importance of the Single Effect in a Prose Tale" (854). In this essay I will compare the strengths Poe champions in Hawthorne's works with those that accentuate Poe's well known short story "The Cask of Amontillado." According to Poe, "Truth is often . . . the aim of the tale" (855). Perhaps this is why Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado" borrows its premise from an allegedly factual incident that took place while Poe was stationed at Boston Harbor. After unjustly killing a young lieutenant in a duel, a Captain Green was incited, by his men, into drinking a great deal. He was then buried alive under the floorboards. (Agatucci) Similarly, the unfortunate Fortunato meets his doom while the warmth of liquor soothes his inhibitions. Also like Captain Green, Fortunato was not depicted as an innocent. Universal truth is considered to be one facet of Literary Realism, or as Shakespeare stated "a mirror held up to [human] nature." There is hardly an emotion more natural than the need for revenge. While the appearance of forgivenes... ...ins at once by addressing the reader as a friend: "You, who so well know the nature of my soul" (666). He then proceeds to enlighten the reader as to the unspeakable act he has committed. Poe does this in a demeanor that rests somewhere between bragging and remorse. The regret, however, is not clear until late in the story with the line "My heart grew sick..." (670). We then realize the dreadful deed was committed some 50 years earlier (671). This leads the reader to a discovered sense of urgency in Montresor's confession. Perhaps he is on his own deathbed, one can only guess. This lends itself to Atwood's idea that "This is the story [Montresor] must tell, this is the story [we] must hear" (Agatucci). In other words, the reader must commit to Poe as he has to his reader. "The Cask of Amontillado" is more than a story; it is an insightful experience.

Vertical Integration

Andrew Carnegie, owner of the Carnegie Steel Company, used vertical integration, a system of related businesses in which a parent company owns its suppliers, to increase his businesses efficiency levels. Carnegie bought out the companies and suppliers that carried the raw materials and services he required for his business. He was able to control everything he needed, and make agreements with other companies to buy his steel. Using this method, he saved money and increased his profits.The Walt Disney World Corporation also uses vertical integration, just as Carnegie had done. Walt Disney plans, produces, advertises, and distributes all their own products. These products are sold in stores all owned by Disney. What also adds to the use of vertical integration within this corporation would be the purchase of ABC. Through this acquisition, it was a way for Walt Disney to propagate some of its programs on its own.Vertical integration affects society by creating less competition, it makes businesses’ profits increase and allows them to save money. There are many positive reasons for vertical integration, such as improving supply chain coordination and reduce transportation costs, but with that always comes the negatives. Due to the lack of supplier competition, there are potentially higher costs, and there is a lower opportunity to increase product variation. Vertical Integration Andrew Carnegie, owner of the Carnegie Steel Company, used vertical integration, a system of related businesses in which a parent company owns its suppliers, to increase his businesses efficiency levels. Carnegie bought out the companies and suppliers that carried the raw materials and services he required for his business. He was able to control everything he needed, and make agreements with other companies to buy his steel. Using this method, he saved money and increased his profits.The Walt Disney World Corporation also uses vertical integration, just as Carnegie had done. Walt Disney plans, produces, advertises, and distributes all their own products. These products are sold in stores all owned by Disney. What also adds to the use of vertical integration within this corporation would be the purchase of ABC. Through this acquisition, it was a way for Walt Disney to propagate some of its programs on its own.Vertical integration affects society by creating less competition, it makes businesses’ profits increase and allows them to save money. There are many positive reasons for vertical integration, such as improving supply chain coordination and reduce transportation costs, but with that always comes the negatives. Due to the lack of supplier competition, there are potentially higher costs, and there is a lower opportunity to increase product variation.

Language Is the Mirror of Society

Preamble: Sociolinguistics is the mirror of society. It is not presupposed. We have to mention some important feature and information to justify the comment. To prove this we should clarify some initial terms before discussing further. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the latter's focus is on the language's effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e. g. , ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc. and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes. The social aspects of language were in the modern sense first studied by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and also by Gauchat in Switzerland in the early 1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The study of the social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave model of the late 19th century. The first attested use of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of a 1939 paper. Sociolinguistics in the West first appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK Society: A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. In social sciences, a society invariably entails social stratification and/or dominance hierarchy. Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. More broadly, a society may be described as an economic, social, or industrial infrastructure, made up of a varied collection of individuals. Members of a society may be from different ethnic groups. A society can be a particular ethnic group, such as the Saxons; a nation state, such as Bhutan; or a broader cultural group, such as a Western society. The word society may also refer to an organized voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes. A â€Å"society† may even, though more by means of metaphor, refer to a social organism such as an ant colony or any cooperative aggregate such as, for example, in some formulations of artificial intelligence. Language: The word â€Å"language† has two meanings: language as a general concept and â€Å"a language† (a specific linguistic system, e. g. â€Å"French†). Languages other than English often have two separate words for these distinct concepts. French for example uses the word langage for language as a concept and langue as the specific instance of language. When speaking of language as a general concept, several different definitions can be used that stress different aspects of the phenomenon. Language, The Social Mirror: Language is a multi-faceted phenomenon. For Chomsky, language is the human essence, a mirror reflecting the natural creativity of the mind. However, language, with its rich variation, can also be seen as a mirror reflecting the miscellaneous nature of the society or the distinct locality of a culture. In her book, Language, the Social Mirror (1982), Chaika states that language and society are so closely intertwined that it is impossible to understand one without the other (p. 1). The mutual dependence, mutual influence, and mutual shaping between language and society are inevitable. Similarly, language and culture are intimately interrelated. Instead of thinking of language and culture, Duranti (1997: 336-7), following Harry Hoijer (1953), suggests that we should think of language in culture. He further states, the linguistic system interprets all other systems within the culture. To expand this idea, we could say that language is in us as much as we are in language. This statement reminds us of linguistic relativity contained within the Whorfian Hypothesis, and at the same time suggests that language is a mirror of the society as well as culture . The following sections will look at language from a socio-cultural perspective, and point out the implications of this outlook on foreign language teaching. Language from a Sociocultural Perspective: In theoretical linguistics, uniformity is the norm; for a formal theory of language intends to reveal the regularity of forms and rules. Toward this end, linguistic data are limited to sentences (as the biggest linguistic units) taken from standard language. Generative Grammar is a perfect example of theoretical linguistics. By contrast, in the study of language in its sociocultural context, best represented by Sociolinguistics and Ethno linguistics, variation is the norm. As noted in passing, linguistic variation is better known as linguistic relativity. In the latest development of the discipline, there has been a pull-and-push tension between relativity and universality in the study of human language. In terms of degree, setting the chronological order aside, linguistic relativity is partly visible in Saussurean structuralism, quite visible in the Bloomfieldian school, highly idealized in the Humboldtian framework, strongly dominating in the Boasian tradition, and well established in the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. In our opinion, linguistic relativity is best captured by the neo-Bloomfieldian postulate: Every language is unique, structurally and culturally. Going back to the study of language in its sociocultural context, we believe that the most fruitful discussion of linguistic relativity should be related to linguistic universality. The notion of universality is very popular in the Chosmkyan school, but less popular in the Greenbergian school. The former, formulated in the theory of Universal Grammar, is essentially universality in micro-linguistics, mostly pertaining to abstract syntax. The latter, formulated in Universals and Typology (Comrie 1989), is universality measured across universal parameters in phonology, morphology and syntax, resulting in typologies across languages. While the approach in the former is more theory-driven and the approach in the latter is more data-driven, both the Chomskyan and Greenbergian schools are confined within the domain of context-free linguistics. Therefore, both types of universality are inadequate for the purpose of explaining linguistic relativity in context bound linguistics. To raise the matter of language and society we should discuss the relativity from linguistic perspectives. To the best of our knowledge, the most appropriate universal parameters to explain linguistic relativity are those proposed by Clark & Clark (1977: 516-17), a rather obscure reference since they are not theoretical linguists but scholars in Psycholinguistics. In fact, Clark & Clark do not give much elaboration to their parameters. Despite the marginal position of the following parameters in linguistic theory, they should prove very useful in explaining linguistic relativity. Universals in Human Language: a. Every language is learned by children. b. Every language is spoken and understood by adults easily and efficiently. c. Every language embodies the ideas people normally want to convey. d. Every language functions as a communicative system in a sociocultural setting. These universal parameters seem to be observation-based and hence empirically verifiable; and they are on par with the laymans definition of language, i. e. , language is a means of verbal communication. Not the structural feature but the functional nature of language is presupposed in each of these parameters. The question is: how do these universal parameters explain linguistic variation? Parameter (15) a implies that L1 acquisition is part of cultural transmission, or from the Chomskyan perspective the exposure of the LAD to primary language data. In acquiring their L1, children simultaneously acquire the sociocultural values. Parameter (15) b is true with mono-level languages, like Indonesian or English, but not necessarily true with multi-level languages, such as Balinese, Javanese, or Sundanese. It is observed that the mastery of Javanese varies considerably across speakers: all of them are fluent speakers of the ngoko low form, but not many of them, particularly among younger generations, are fluent speakers of the krama high form. The picture of prosperous society can be seen from this variation and the force is language. Parameter (15) c is universally true at the functional level, but variation occurs at the structural level and in the manner of conveying ideas. Parameter (15)d, like (15)c, is universally true with reference to a language as a whole communicative system, but languages vary structurally across cultures. The neo-Bloomfieldian postulate stated above (i. e. , every language is unique, structurally and culturally) modifies parameters (15)c and (15)d. Language as social network Language is a social phenomenon. Because language arises naturally and inevitably in all human groups, linguists study not simply the sounds, grammars and meanings of the world’s languages, but also how these languages function in their social settings. Many linguists believe that humans are genetically programmed to learn language, but it still takes social contact to turn on the switch that makes us talk. Because our social networks tend to be complex, we all use multiple versions of our native language. We may speak differently when we’re with friends, relatives or strangers; when we’re at home, in school or on the job. The context of communication — its purpose and audience — determines whether our words are spoken or written, formal or informal, full of slang or technical jargon, off-color, colorful, or colorless. The social context of communication also affects the degree to which our language approaches or avoids the norms of correctness that our speech community deems appropriate to the occasion. Social contact and social conflict both shape language. Relative changes in language due to social changes Social changes produce changes in language. This affects values in ways that have not been accurately understood. Language incorporates social values. However, social values are only the same as linguistic values when the society is a stable and unchanging one. Once society starts changing, then language change produces special effects. The use of language forms a closed loop, since it is modelled on the loop of projection and introjection. The difference between the two loops is simply that the psychological one is based on individual meanings and the linguistic one on social values. This link between language and social values is one of identity, but only as long as society is static or is evolving slowly. In a static society, the language is the society. Society is its language. The two are one. Language and society are two different systems since the structure within language centres on the static signifier whilst the structure within consciousness orientates on the dynamic signified. In times of stability the dynamic structure of consciousness is put on hold, so linguistic values and social values are one. However, as society changes so the dynamic structure gradually comes into the foreground. Perhaps it is more accurate to put this effect the other way around: as the dynamic structure of consciousness becomes accentuated, so society begins to change. Relative changes in society due to language changes: Language contains traditional values – this is what is implied in the ideas of social conditioning and social learning. In a static society, traditional values are unquestioned. Hence social learning takes the form of social conditioning. Social conditioning is the unquestioned or confused adherence to social norms, and occurs when society is taken to be self-referential. Society is the judge of its own needs. The only circumstance that normally breaks social conditioning in some degree is change. Therefore in a period of fast social change, chaos occurs as social norms are questioned, altered and perhaps even rejected. New norms are slowly generated. This chaos ensures that society can no longer be regarded as being self-referential. In this situation of chaos, language is grasped as being self-referential. Then language is no longer necessarily tied to social reality. In such times, values change as the values within language change and we may witness radical innovation in artistic genres. For example, the nineteenth century saw the focus on art for art’s sake, along with science for science's sake (neither art nor science were to be dependent of values external to themselves, such as social usefulness). Then the problem of grappling with the new possibilities of language produced the dense symbolism of Mallarme. In twentieth-century literary theory the text has become autonomous and self-contained, and/or the reader has acquired total freedom in his interpretation of the text. Language creates society: This relation is not apparent in static societies; it is easy to assume that society antedates language. Even ‘primitive’ societies are no exception. A ‘primitive’ society is one where language use is primitive, and indicates hunter-gatherer tribes – yet a tribe cannot be established until the necessary linguistic signs for authority are created. Society cannot be created until a group of people has some values in common. And values require a language to embed them and articulate them. It is language that brings people together and keeps them together. Language always precedes society. Even in small groups this relation holds: for example, in a political discussion group the people come together because they already have, or want to learn, a common political language. Some models to explain how language interacts with society: Features of society affecting language use and response may be (more or less): †¢ Static: e. g. thnicity, gender, class background †¢ Changing: e. g. education, age, social environment, attitudes and fashions †¢ Situational/contextual: e. g. immediate social situation (workplace, home, recreation, peer group, perceived formality of situation) In studying this wide field of language theory, we will find it impossible to have detailed knowledge of all social categories. We should, however, have a range of examples from different areas as shown above. We should also have a wide body of examples from a smaller range of categories – especially any on which we may be examined. We must be able to comment on language features (relevant to sociolinguistics) in these examples. Shirley Russell takes the first approach in Grammar, Structure and Style (OUP; ISBN 0-19-831179-6), looking in depth at gender, advertising and law only. George Keith and John Shuttleworth Living Language Hodder; (ISBN 0-340-67343-5) take the second – they do not identify any topic within the general subject area, but give copybook examples of how to â€Å"read† a text that embodies attitudes to society in its language use. Relationship between Education and Society To show the relation of sociolinguistics with society from educational perspective we should discuss the relationship between education and society. We have seen education in particular as a means of cultural transmission from one generation to another. The parents are the first teachers of the child and they still maintain an educative function throughout the early and formative years of the child. In most of the developing nations of the world, including Nigeria, parents are responsible for sending their children or wards to school. Since these nations are undergoing rapid socioeconomic and political changes, they witness special problems in evolving the appropriate education system, which will be able to produce the adequate manpower needs in all the segments of the society. Schools are established in many societies of the world so as to instill in the pupils those skill’s which will afford them the opportunity of taking their rightful positions in the society; but this function cannot be adequately accomplished without the assistance of the home because both the home and the school perform complimentary functions in the moral and intellectual development of the child. This means that the child cannot be educated in a vacuum or in isolation. Therefore, for a child to be educated there must be interaction between him and his physical and social environment. By this we mean that education is the development of personality. It is something which goes on both inside and outside the home and in the school. In other words, education is an activity of the whole community. This means that education is used in the transmission of the cultural values. One important implication of looking at education as the transmitter of cultural values is the fact that education can be influenced by the culture of the society in which it takes place. For this reason, one may infer that for a child to be educated, he must be influenced by his environment and, in turn, be capable of influencing it. And it is only by the concept of the continuous interaction of the individual and his society that the development of personality can be properly understood. We have noted above that education is a means through which the cultural values of a particular society are transmitted from one generation to another. Through this process, the society is able to achieve basic social conformity and ensure that its traditional values, beliefs, attitudes and aspirations are maintained and preserved. Clarks (1948) observed that a general knowledge and acceptance of the ideals and aims of our society is essential for all its citizens, and it must be achieved through education but in a form, which makes it compatible with freedom. So he reconciles the double purpose by saying that admittedly, the purpose of the educative society may be to make men conformable. But overmastering that must be the purpose to make men free. A society needs a stable and dynamic set of values and a, unified purpose. It is when this is ascertained that meaningful economic, political and social programmes can be embarked upon for ~he overall benefits of the citizens. To be a fully developed person in such a society implies full and creative membership of it with powers to change it. Ottaway (1980) contended that the transmission of culture still remains a vital function, and is not to be dismissed as merely conservative in the sense of being old-fashioned. He further observed that our children are potentially the society of the future, which still belongs to the non-social community, and education in this respect can be regarded as a socialization of the young. Education depends on the total way of life of a people in a society. This suggests that the type of education provided will differ from society to society. Besides, each society has her own norms, values and her own ideal persons who stand out clearly for the younger generations to emulate. Since all these societies are not the same, then it means that a man regarded as a hero in one society because of his contributions to educational development of the society may not be regarded as such in another society where education is not given priority in the scheme of their daily activities. It, therefore, implies that children have different people to emulate in different societies. It is logical to expect that the type of education given in each society will change from time to time as the society changes. Many writers have argued that education is one of the causes of social change in the society, but another school of thought is of the opinion, that educational change tends to follow other social changes, rather than initiate them. Ottaway (1980) observed that ideas of change originate in the minds of men; often in the mind of a single man. Exceptional individuals invent new techniques and propound new values for their society. These ideas arise from the impact of men on his culture, but do not change the culture until they are shared and transmitted by a social group. In his own submission, Boocock (1972) noted that societies undergoing rapid social change or modernization have special problems in adapting the educational system to the manpower needs of the world. They often suffer shortages of persons with special kinds of learning in engineering and other technical fields and may have difficulty in keeping persons with valuable skills once they have completed their education. Another area of the relationship between education and society is through the arrangement of the entire society into a hierarchical order that is, through the social structure in which education plays a prominent and significant role in fixing educated individuals into social classes. Ottaway (1980) observed that education is the process of preparing people to fit into this complex social structure and to play particular social roles as members of more than one institutional group. Individuals have to learn to be fathers or mothers, school teachers or civil servants, shopkeepers or priests. They have to learn to keep the law, to understand how they are governed and to be prepared to try and change the social moves when they see that they can be improved. Education as a social phenomenon is also concerned with the preparation of the child for his future occupation in life. This is one of the main economic functions of education and this is in the interest of both the society and the individual. Through education an individual knows the structure of the society and the different types of relationships that exist among those structures in the society. The child is taught how to perform different roles within the social structure in the society. These roles are inter-related. For example, the role of a father is a relational role; a father could be a son to another person. So education allows the child to perform his role adequately within the social structure in the society. In addition, the child is able to understand the network of inter-relationships among the different social institutions that make up the society. Also of importance are the different functions that are performed by each social institution in the society. Like an individual, each institution has definite functions to perform in the society and the functions of each institution differ from one to another even though they are complimentary. Another aspect of the relationship between education and society is in the area of social interaction. Social interaction may be defined as any relation between people and groups, which changes the behaviour of the people in the group. There is a need for social interaction by the child before he could acquire the culture of his society. This interaction in the society is therefore part of the child's education, provided that, that type of interaction brings about positive changes in the child's behaviour in a right direction as required by the educational system. One important point here is that the child has been taking part in group interaction long before he starts to attend school and the most common among these group interactions are within the family and the peergroup. These groups in which the child interacts give him the opportunity to learn from the wider circles in the society. From his social contacts, he learns his roles in different groups and this influences his personality development. Many sociologists have appreciated the relationship between education and society and have concluded that the two are so interrelated. That one cannot draw any line of demarcation between them. It has been observed that the educational system of any nation must be based on the needs and demands of the society and that any educational system that fails to meet the needs, aspirations and ambitions of the society is not relevant and is bound to fail. The educational system of any nation is concerned with, the transmitting of the cultural values of today to those who will live in the world of tomorrow, and contents of education must somehow strike a balance. Dubey et. al. (1984) observed that a good educational system, in all its full substance and ramifications, is related to the level of culture, industrial development, rate of urbanization, political organization, religious climate, family structure, stratification and other institutions of the total social system. Finally, education has to fulfill both the individual's needs and those of the society and must keep pace with other sub-systems in the society, as both variables are inter-related. Economy affects by language and society: By trying to detect evidence of the presence of the principle of linguistic economy in Early Modern English works, it was noted that most of the texts scrutinized and dealt with in this paper present the English language as a simple language to learn, made up of easy expressions and governed by few grammatical rules, which have undergone, in the course of many centuries, an ven more conspicuous simplification:  «the English Language is perhaps of all the present European languages by much the most simple in its form and construction This characteristic results from gradual linguistic changes, but it can also be traced back to the very nature of the English language and its speakers; English people are depicted as savers ( «we are a people very sparing of our wo rds, and even of our syllables »: White 1761:29), who avoid excessive efforts to communicate:  «we have a fondness for Abbreviations, and that fills our language with many Monosyllables » (Collyer 1735:68). Moreover, the monosyllabic nature of the lexicon is often underlined:  «monosyllables are very numerous in our English Tongue, that. s why it is an easy Tongue to write and to speak » (Aickin 1693:30). A lot of remarks concern the use of several abbreviations, or the lack of morphological endings that usually indicate syntactic connections, or again the purity and elegance of its construction, all aspects that indicate economy and saving as beneficial, almost peculiar characteristics of the language. Some of the most important aspects coming out of the analysis of the texts will be now considered and investigated, in order to emphasize the presence or the absence of the concept of economy in the observations collected; the related comments will be classified by linguistic levels. Conclusion: The whole discussion brought the vicegerency of language, society, economy, education, culture and so on among them. One is representative of another. Overall contributions make the society and sociolinguistics analyze the role of each individual element. We can strongly take apart to accept sociolinguistics as the mirror of the society. REFERENCES †¢ Wikipedia, the free world encyclopedia. †¢ Ronald Wardhaugh: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. †¢ Becker, Alton L. 1995. Beyond Translation: Essays toward a Modern Philology. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. †¢ Brown, Douglas H. 1994. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents. †¢ Brown, Penelope & Levinson, Stephen C. 1987. Politeness: Some universals in language use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press †¢ Chaika, Elaine. 1982. Language the Social Mirror. London: Newbury House Publishers, Inc. †¢ Chaudhary, Nandita. 2004. Listening to Culture: Constructing Reality from Everyday Talk. New Delhi: Sage Publications. †¢ Chomsky, Noam. 1972. Language and Mind (Enlarged Edition). San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers. †¢ Clark, Herbert H. & Clark, Eve V. 1977. Psychology and Language: An Introduction to †¢ Psycholinguistics. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers. †¢ Comrie, Bernard. 989. Language Universals and Linguistic Typology (second edition. ) The University of Chicago Press. †¢ Duranti, Alessandro. 1997. Linguistic Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. †¢ Finochiaro, Mary. 1974. English as a Second Language: From Theory to Practice. New York: Regents Publishing Co. †¢ Blakemore, K. and Cooksey, B. (1981). A Sociology of Education for Africa. London: George Allen & Unwin. †¢ Boocock, S. (1972). An Introduction to the Sociology of Learning. New York: Houghton Mifflin. †¢ Clarke, F. (1948). Freedom in the Educative Society London: University Press. †¢ Dubey, D. L. et. al (1984). An Introduction to the Sociology of Nigerian Education. London: Macmillan. †¢ Durkheim, E. (1961). Moral Education, English Translation. London: Free Press. †¢ Havighurst, R. J. (1960). Education, Social Mobility and Social Change in Four Societies. Homewood, III: Dorsey Press. The assignment prepared and submitted by the following students:- |SL |Full Name |Batch |Full ID No. | |01 |Md. Harun-or Rashid |4th |BAEEM04081007 | |02 |S. M. Ahsanul Karim |4th |BAEEM04081004 | |03 |Khandakar Mahbul Alam |4th |BAEEM04081004 | |04 |Iqbal Hosen |5th |BAEEM05082004 | |05 |Arshadul Haque |6th |BAEEM06083001 | |06 |Kamruzzaman |6th |BAERM05082078 | |07 |Nazrul Islam |4th |BAERM01081004 | |08 |Md Abul Kalam Azad |7th |BAEEM07091013 | |09 |Md. Mahfuzur Rahman Hydar |8th |BAEEM08092003 | |10 |Md. Abu Taher |7th |BAEEM07091007 | |11 |Md. Niaz Morshed |7th |BAEEM07091060 | |12 |Md. Faruk Hossain |7th |BAEEM07091023 | |13 |Md. Mun-uddin |7th |BAEEM07091006 | |14 |Rafiqul Islam Akanda |10th |BAERM10101015 | |15 |Mohammad Mamun Miah |10th |BAERM10101046 | |16 |Md. Asad Ullah |10th |BAERM10101045 | |17 |Md. Rosul Amin |4th |BAEEM04081002 | |18 |Md. Ujjal Sheikh |6th |BAEEM06083005 | |19 | | | | |20 | | | | |21 | | | | |22 | | | | |23 | | | | |24 | | | | |25 | | | | |26 | | | | |27 | | | |